Life’s Dispute

It is interesting to explore the work of art of Ernest Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms. In the story, it gives the readers a sense of responsibility hand in hand with intense love for someone that the protagonist has to his beloved. The blend of one’s conviction and love are the focal elements in the author’s masterpiece.As the author shed light to the intriguing scenario of the story, at some point, the readers would have passionate longing and at the same time a huge responsibility to his craft. It is indeed in this story that the author uses the realities of life which truly give emphasis to the norm of the story.Furthermore, A Farewell to Arms involves a great representation of one’s ideals in life. On how the central character portrays his conviction all through out the story is the essential part of this paper. The elaboration of ideals as well as realities of life will be presented in this dissertation.In lieu of the story, Frederick Henry is the lea ding character. He’s a volunteer ambulance driver which has a huge responsibility in the realm that he is into but at the same time, at the back of his mind, he is thinking about the indifferent world. Accordingly, he does his work efficiently but along the way, he makes a gesture that he misses the point wherein the essentiality his work does not serve his persona anymore.In addition to the protagonist ideals in life, it was characterized in the story how he passionately fall in love with Catherine with whom he focuses his attention. The deep rooted feelings that he established towards Catherine truly leave a mark to his character and on the later part of the story, it was clearly shown how he stand with his love despite the challenges that comes their way.Catherine Barkley was said to be the one behind the character of Frederick Henry. She was once loose her fiancà ©. She met Frederick Henry in the hospital. They both got attracted with each other which lead them to have a relationship. Their affair was intensely depicted in the story which enlightens the very essence of A Farewell to Arms. Catherine’s character without a doubt had a huge impact to Frederick Henry’s character. She simply defines the perseverance of the central character by using their love as central element, â€Å"I want what you want.There is no any me any more just what you want† (Hemingway, p.106). The characteristic of Frederick Henry is not the serious type when it comes to relationship, â€Å"I did not love Catherine Barkley nor had any idea of loving her. This was a game, like bridge, in which you said things instead of playing cards. Like bridge you had to pretend you were playing for money or playing for some stakes. Nobody had mentioned what the stakes were† (Hemingway, p. 31). As Frederick Henry had an attachment to Catherine, his feelings transforms in a much deeper character of a man with conviction to his girl.On the later part of the story when Catherine had difficulty in her pregnancy and to the extent that she looses her life with their baby, it expounds the strength in the leading role’s character as he stand firm and with open arms accept the challenges of life. Truly, the world is indifferent in the eyes of Frederick Henry but because of Catherine’s contributions to his life, he became strong with a grip to love the life that he has.Rinaldi, a physician and a friend to Frederick Henry was one of the contributing characters in the story. Through this man, it draws a picture of concentrated aim for the best. He focuses his attention to two things – war and country. This man talks about medal of bravery and development in ones craft. Indeed, it gives the leading character to have a perception as regards to work as well as to excel in his field.Passini, another effective character in A Farewell to Arms delineates the intention of the story. Considering his character, his views in life was to quit with what he is doing.He wanted to end the war just like that because he does not appreciate anymore the imperative task he is portraying, â€Å"One side must stop fighting. Why don't we stop fighting† (Hemingway, p.51). Unfortunately, he died in the event of the story, and this circumstance serves an eye opener to the protagonist that when you relinquish the struggle, you almost surrender yourself.

Small Business, Innovation, and Public Policy in the Information Technology Industry

New firms have played a major role in fomenting innovation in information technology. A recent study by Greenwood and Jovanovic [1999] provide one dramatic illustration of these trends. These authors show that a group of â€Å"IT upstarts†Ã¢â‚¬â€firms specializing in computer and communications technologies that went public after 1968—now account for over 4% of the total U. S. equity market capitalization. While some of this growth has come at the expense of incumbent information technology firms, the new market value and technological spillovers created by these new businesses appear to be substantial. The role of new firms in the information technology industries has rekindled interest in the relationship between firm characteristics and innovation. Are small businesses more innovative in general? Are high-technology start-ups particularly important? If the answer to either of these questions is yes, how should policymakers seek to encourage these firms? The relationship between innovation and firm characteristics has been one of the most researched topics in the empirical industrial organization literature. To summarize these discussions and draw some implications for policymakers in a few pages is thus a daunting challenge! Consequently, this essay takes a quite selective approach to these issues. First, I very briefly summarize the academic literature on the relationship between firm size and innovation. This work suggests that there appears to be a very weak relationship between firm size, the tendency to undertake R&D, and the effectiveness of research spending. Small businesses, in aggregate, do not appear to be particularly research-intensive or innovative. I then turn to examining one subset of small businesses that do appear to excel at innovation: venture capital-backed start-ups. I highlight some of the venture-backed firms’ contributions. I also discuss why the success of such firms is not accidental. In particular, I highlight the key problems that the financing of small innovative companies pose, as well as some of the key mechanisms that venture investors employ to guide the innovation process. It is not surprising, then, that venture capital investments are concentrated in information technology industries, and that they appear to pur innovation. Finally, I consider one set of policy issues related to small firms and innovation. In particular, I discuss some recent changes in the intellectual property protection system that appear to favor larger firms. I then argue that this may be an area that would reward increased attention by policy-makers interested in helping innovative small businesses in information technology a nd other high-technology industries. 1. Small Business and Innovation A substantial but largely inconclusive literature examines the relationship between firm size and innovation. These studies have been handicapped by the difficulty of measuring innovative inputs and outputs, as well as the challenges of creating a sample that is free of selection biases and other estimation problems. While a detailed review of this literature is beyond the scope of this piece, the interested reader can turn to surveys by Baldwin and Scott [1987] and Cohen and Levin [1989]. Much of the work in this literature has sought to relate measures of innovative discoveries—whether R&D expenditures, patents, inventions, or other measures—to firm size. Initial studies were undertaken using the largest manufacturing firms; more recent works have employed larger samples and more disaggregated data (e. g. , studies employing data on firms’ specific lines of business). Despite the improved methodology of recent studies, the results have remained inconclusive: even when a significant relationship between firm size and innovation has been found, it has had little economic significance. For instance, Cohen, Levin, and Mowery [1987] concluded that a doubling of firm size only increased the ratio of R&D to sales by 0. 2%. One of the relatively few empirical regularities emerging from studies of technological innovation is the critical role played by small firms and new entrants in certain industries. The role of entrants—typically de novo start-ups—in emerging industries was highlighted, for instance, in the pioneering case study-based research of Jewkes, Sawers, and Stillerman [1958]. Acs and Audretsch [1988] examined this question more systematically. They documented that the contribution of small firms to innovation was a function of industry conditions: the contribution was greatest in immature industries which were relatively unconcentrated. These findings suggested that entrepreneurs and small firms often played a key role in observing where new technologies could be applied to meet customer needs, and rapidly introducing products. These patterns are also predicted in several models of technological competition, many of which were reviewed in Reinganum [1989], as well in several analyses in the organizational behavior literature [several were discussed in Henderson, 1993]. The 1990s have seen several dramatic illustrations of these patterns. Two potentially revolutionary areas of technological innovation—biotechnology and the Internet—were pioneered by smaller entrants. Neither established drug companies nor mainframe computer manufacturers were pioneers in developing these technologies. By and large, small firms did not invent the key genetic engineering techniques or Internet protocols. Rather, the bulk of the enabling technologies were developed with Federal funds at academic institutions and research laboratories. It was the small entrants, however, who were the first to seize upon the commercial opportunities. 2. Venture Capital and Innovation One set of small firms, however, appear to have had a disproportionate effect on innovation: those backed by venture capitalists. Venture capital can be defined as equity or equity-linked investments in young, privately held companies, where the investor is a financial intermediary is typically actively as a director, advisor or even manager of the firm. ) While venture capitalists fund only a few hundred of the nearly one million businesses begun in the United States each year, these firms have a disprop ortionate impact on technological innovation. This claim is supported by a variety of evidence. One measure, while crude, is provided by the firms which â€Å"graduate† to the public marketplace. In the past two decades, about one-third of the companies going public (weighted by value) have been backed by venture investors. A second way to assess these claims is to examine which firms have been funded. Venture capitalists, while contributing a relatively modest share of the total financing, provided critical early capital and guidance to many of the new firms in such emerging industries as biotechnology, computer networking, and the Internet. In some cases, these new firms—utilizing the capital, expertise, and contacts provided by their venture capital investors—established themselves as market leaders. In other instances, they were acquired by larger corporations, or entered into licensing arrangements with such concerns. Consider, for instance, the biotechnology industry. Venture capitalists provided only a small fraction of the external financing raised in the industry, and only 450 out of 1500 firms have received venture financing through 1995. These venture-backed firms, however, accounted for over 85% of the patents awarded and drugs approved for marketing. Similarly, venture capitalists have aggressively backed firms in information technology industries, which accounted for 60% of all venture disbursements in 1998. These have included many of the most successful firms in the industry, including Amazon. com, Cisco Systems, Microsoft, Intel, and Yahoo. A final way to assess the impact of the venture industry is to consider the impact of venture backed firms. Survey results suggest that these investments have powerful impacts. For instance, a mid-1996 survey by the venture organization Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield, and Byers found that the firms that the partnership had financed since its inception in 1971 had created 131,000 jobs, generated $44 billion in annual revenues, and had $84 billion in market capitalization [Peltz, 1996]. While Kleiner, Perkins is one of the most successful venture capital groups, the results are suggestive of the impact of the industry. More systematically, Kortum and Lerner [1998] examining the influence of venture capital on patented inventions in the United States across twenty industries over three decades. They address concerns about causality in several ways, including exploiting a 1979 policy shift that spurred venture capital fundraising. They find that the amount of venture capital activity in an industry significantly increases its rate of patenting. While the ratio of venture capital to R&D has averaged less than 3% in recent years, the estimates suggest that venture capital accounts for about 15% of industrial innovations. They address concerns that these results are an artifact of the use of patent counts by demonstrating similar patterns when other measures of innovation are used in a sample of 530 venture-backed and non-venture-backed firms. Lending particular relevance to an examination of these firms is the tremendous boom in the U. S. venture capital industry in recent years. The pool of venture partnerships has grown ten-fold, from under $4 billion in 1978 to about $75 billion at the end of 1998. Venture capital’s recent growth has outstripped that of almost every class of financial product. It is worth underscoring that the tremendous success of venture-backed firms has not happened by accident. The interactions between venture capitalists and the entrepreneurs that they finance are often complex. They can be understood, however, as a response to the challenges that the financing of emerging growth companies pose. Entrepreneurs rarely have the capital to see their ideas to fruition and must rely on outside financiers. Meanwhile, those who control capital—for instance, pension fund trustees and university overseers—are unlikely to have the time or expertise to invest directly in young or restructuring firms. Some entrepreneurs might turn to other financing sources, such as bank loans or the issuance of public stock, to meet their needs. But because of four key factors, some of the most potentially profitable and exciting firms would be unable to access financing if venture capital did not exist. The first factor, uncertainty, is a measure of the array of potential outcomes for a company or project. The wider the dispersion of potential outcomes, the greater the uncertainty. By their very nature, young companies are associated with significant levels of uncertainty. Uncertainty surrounds whether the research program or new product will succeed. The response of firm’s rivals may also be uncertain. High uncertainty means that investors and entrepreneurs cannot confidently predict what the company will look like in the future. Uncertainty affects the willingness of investors to contribute capital, the desire of suppliers to extend credit, and the decisions of a firm’s managers. If managers are averse to taking risks, it may be difficult to induce them to make the right decisions. Conversely, if entrepreneurs are overoptimistic, then investors want to curtail various actions. Uncertainty also affects the timing of investment. Should an investor contribute all the capital at the beginning, or should he stage the investment through time? Investors need to know how information-gathering activities can address these concerns and when they should be undertaken. The second factor, asymmetric information (or information disparities), is distinct from uncertainty. Because of his day-to-day involvement with the firm, an entrepreneur knows more about his company’s prospects than investors, suppliers, or strategic partners. Various problems develop in settings where asymmetric information is prevalent. For instance, the entrepreneur may take detrimental actions that investors cannot observe: perhaps undertaking a riskier strategy than initially suggested or not working as hard as the investor expects. The entrepreneur might also invest in projects that build up his reputation at the investors’ expense. Asymmetric information can also lead to selection problems. The entrepreneur may exploit the fact that he knows more about the project or his abilities than investors do. Investors may find it difficult to distinguish between competent entrepreneurs and incompetent ones. Without the ability to screen out unacceptable projects and entrepreneurs, investors are unable to make efficient and appropriate decisions. The third factor affecting a firm’s corporate and financial strategy is the nature of its assets. Firms that have tangible assets—e. g. , machines, buildings, land, or physical inventory—may find financing easier to obtain or may be able to obtain more favorable terms. The ability to abscond with the firm’s source of value is more difficult when it relies on physical assets. When the most important assets are intangible, such as trade secrets, raising outside financing from traditional sources may be more challenging. Market conditions also play a key role in determining the difficulty of financing firms. Both the capital and product markets may be subject to substantial variations. The supply of capital from public investors and the price at which this capital is available may vary dramatically. These changes may be a response to regulatory edicts or shifts in investors’ perceptions of future profitability. Similarly, the nature of product markets may vary dramatically, whether due to shifts in the intensity of competition with rivals or in the nature of the customers. If there is exceedingly intense competition or a great deal of uncertainty about the size of the potential market, firms may find it very difficult to raise capital from traditional sources. Venture capitalists have a variety of mechanisms at their disposal to address these changing factors. They will invest in stages, often at increasing valuations. Each refinancing is tied to a re-evaluation of the company and its prospects. In these financings, they will employ complex financing mechanisms, often hybrid securities like convertible preferred equity or convertible debt. These financial structures can potentially screen out overconfident or under-qualified entrepreneurs and reduce the venture capitalists’ risks. They will also shift the mixture of investors from whom a firm acquires capital. Each source—private equity investors, corporations, and the public markets—may be appropriate for a firm at different points in its life. Venture capitalists provide not only introductions to these other sources of capital but certification—a â€Å"stamp of approval† that addresses the concerns of other investors. Finally, once the investment is made, they monitor and work with the entrepreneurs to ensure that the right operational and strategic decisions are made and implemented. 3. Innovation, Small Business, and Public Policy If small firms—or even some subset of small firms—are playing an important role in the innovation process, one policy goal should be to address threats to their future development. This is particularly true of threats that have been created by misguided government policies, however good the intentions of their designers. The area that I believe deserves particular attention relates to the key mechanism for protecting intellectual property, namely patents. The U. S. patent system has undergone a profound shift over the past fifteen years. The strength of patent protection has been dramatically bolstered, and both large and small firms are devoting considerably more effort to seeking patent protection and defending their patents in the courts. Many in the patent community—U. S. Patent and Trademark Office officials, the patent bar, and corporate patent staff—have welcomed these changes. But viewed more broadly, the reforms of the patent system and the consequent growth of patent litigation have created a substantial â€Å"innovation tax† that afflicts some of America's most important and creative small firms. Almost all formal disputes involving issued patents are tried in the Federal judicial system. The initial litigation must be undertaken in a district court. Prior to 1982, appeals of patent cases were heard in the appellate courts of the various circuits. These differed considerably in their interpretation of patent law. Because few appeals of patent cases were heard by the Supreme Court, substantial differences persisted, leading to widespread â€Å"forum shopping† by litigants. In 1982, the U. S. Congress established a centralized appellate court for patent cases, the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (CAFC). As Robert Merges [1992] observes, While the CAFC was ostensibly formed strictly to unify patent doctrine, it was no doubt hoped by some (and expected by others) that the new court would make subtle alterations in the doctrinal fabric, with an eye to enhancing the patent system. To judge by results, that is exactly what happened. The CAFC's rulings have been more â€Å"pro-patent† than the previous courts. For instance, the circuit courts had affirmed 62% of district court findings of patent infringement in the three decades prior to the creation of the CAFC, while the CAFC in its first eight years affirmed 90% of such decisions [Koenig, 1980; Harmon, 1991]. The strengthening of patent law has not gone unnoticed by corporations. Over the past decade, patents awarded to U. S. corporations have increased by 50%. Furthermore, the willingness of firms to litigate patents has increased considerably. The number of patent suits instituted in the Federal courts has increased from 795 in 1981 to 1553 in 1993; adversarial proceedings within the U. S. Patent and Trademark Office have increased from 246 in 1980 to 684 in 1992 [Administrative Office, various years; U. S. Department of Commerce, various years]. My recent analysis of litigation by firms based in Middlesex County, Massachusetts suggests that six intellectual property-related suits are filed for every one hundred patent awards to corporations. These suits lead to significant expenditures by firms. Based on historical costs, I estimate that patent litigation begun in 1991 will lead to total legal expenditures (in 1991 dollars) of over $1 billion, a substantial amount relative to the $3. billion spent by U. S. firms on basic research in 1991. [These findings are summarized in Lerner, 1995. ] Litigation also leads to substantial indirect costs. The discovery process is likely to require the alleged infringer to produce extensive documentation, time-consuming depositions from employees, and may generate unfavorable publicity. Its officers and directors may also be held i ndividually liable. As firms have realized the value of their patent positions, they have begun reviewing their stockpiles of issued patents. Several companies, including Texas Instruments, Intel, Wang Laboratories, and Digital Equipment, have established groups that approach rivals to demand royalties on old patent awards. In many cases, they have been successful in extracting license agreements and/or past royalties. For instance, Texas Instruments is estimated to have netted $257 million in 1991 from patent licenses and settlements resulting from their general counsel's aggressive enforcement policy [Rosen, 1992]. Particularly striking, practitioner accounts suggest, has been the growth of litigation–and threats of litigation–between large and small firms. This trend is disturbing. While litigation is clearly a necessary mechanism to defend property rights, the proliferation of such suits may be leading to transfers of financial resources from some of the youngest and most innovative firms to more established, better capitalized concerns. Even if the target firm feels that it does not infringe, it may choose to settle rather than fight. It either may be unable to raise the capital to finance a protracted court battle, or else may believe that the publicity associated with the litigation will depress the valuation of its equity. In addition, these small firms may reduce or alter their investment in R. For instance, a 1990 survey of 376 firms found that the time and expense of intellectual property litigation was a major factor in the decision to pursue an innovation for almost twice as many firms with under 500 employees than for larger businesses [Koen, 1990]. These claims are also supported by my study [1995] of the patenting behavior of new biotechnology firms that have different litigation costs. I showed that firms with high litigation costs are less likely to patent in subclasses with many other awards, particularly those of firms with low litigation costs. These effects have been particularly pernicious in emerging industries. Chronically strained for resources, USPTO officials are unlikely to assign many patent examiners to emerging technologies in advance of a wave of applications. As patent applications begin flowing in, the USPTO frequently finds the retention of the few examiners skilled in the new technologies difficult. Companies are likely to hire away all but the least able examiners. These examiners are valuable not only for their knowledge of the USPTO examination procedure in the new technology, but also for their understanding of what other patent applications are in process but not awarded. (U. S. patent applications are held confidential until time of award. ) Many of the examinations in emerging technologies are as a result performed under severe time pressures by inexperienced examiners. Consequently, awards of patents in several critical new technologies have been delayed and highly inconsistent. These ambiguities have created ample opportunities for firms that seek to aggressively litigate their patent awards. The clearest examples of this problem are the biotechnology and software industries. In the latter industry, examples abound where inexperienced examiners have granted patents on technologies that were widely diffused but not previously patented [see, for instance, the many examples chronicled in Aharonian, 1999]. It might be asked why policy-makers have not addressed the deleterious effects of patent policy changes. The difficulties that Federal officials have faced in reforming the patent system are perhaps best illustrated by the efforts to simplify one of the most arcane aspects of our patent system, the â€Å"first-to-invent† policy. With the exception of the Philippines and Jordan, all other nations award patents to firms that are the first to file for patent protection. The U. S. , however, has clung to the first-to-invent system. In the U. S. , a patent will be awarded to the party who can demonstrate (through laboratory notebooks and other evidence) that he was the initial discoverer of a new invention, even if he did not file for patent protection until after others did (within certain limits). A frequently invoked argument for the first-to-invent system is that this provides protection for small inventors, who may take longer to translate a discovery into a completed patent application. While this argument is initially compelling, the reality is quite different. Disputes over priority of invention are resolved through a proceeding before the USPTO's Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences known as an interference. The Board will hold a hearing to determine which inventor first made the discovery. The interference process has been characterized as â€Å"an archaic procedure, replete with traps for the unwary† [Calvert, 1980]. These interferences consume a considerable amount of resources: the adjudication of the average interference is estimated to cost over one hundred thousand dollars [Kingston, 1992]. Yet in recent years, in only about 55 cases annually has the party that was second-to-file been determined to have been the first-to-invent [Calvert and Sofocleous, 1992]. Thus, the U. S. persists in this complex, costly, and idiosyncratic system in order to reverse the priority of 0. 3% of the patent applications filed each year. But this system has proved very resistant to change. At least since 1967, proposals have been unsuccessfully offered to shift the U. S. to a first-to-file system. As recently as January 1994, USPTO Commissioner Bruce Lehman was forced to withdraw such a proposal. While the voices raised in protest over his initiative—as those opposing e arlier reform attempts—were led by advocates for small inventors, it is difficult not to conclude that the greatest beneficiary from the first-to-file system is the small subset of the patent bar that specializes in interference law. It may be thought puzzling that independent inventors, who are generally unable to afford costly litigation, have been so active in supporting the retention of â€Å"first-to-invest. † A frequently voiced complaint is that small inventors take longer to prepare patent applications, and hence would lose out to better-financed rivals, in a â€Å"first-to-file† world. This argument appears to be specious for several reasons. First, economically important discoveries are typically the subject of patent filings in a number of countries. Thus, there is already an enormous pressure to file quickly. Second, the recent reforms of the U. S. system have created a new provisional patent application, which is much simpler to file than a full-fledged application. Finally, as former Commissioner Lehman notes, many most vocal independent inventors opposing patent reform are â€Å"weekend hobbyists . . . [rather than representatives of] knowledge-based industries† [Chartrand, 1995]. As this case study suggests, the failure of Federal reform efforts is due to several factors. First, the issues are complex, and sometimes difficult to understand. Simplistic claims frequently cloud these discussions. For instance, because firms use patents to protect innovations, it is frequently argued that a stronger patent system will lead to more innovation. Second, the people with the greatest economic stake in retaining a litigious and complex patent system—the patent bar—have proven to be a very powerful lobby. The efforts of the highly specialized interference bar to retain â€Å"first to invent† is a prime example. Finally, the top executives of technology-intensive firms have not mounted an effective campaign around these issues. The reason may be that the companies who are most adversely affected are small, capital-constrained firms who do not have time for major lobbying efforts. Thus, an important policy concern is that we avoid taking steps in the name of increasing competitiveness that actually interfere with the workings of innovative small businesses. The 1982 reform of the patent litigation process appears to have had exactly this sort of unintended consequence. References Zoltan J. Acs and David B. Audretsch, â€Å"Innovation in Large and Small Firms: An Empirical Analysis,† American Economic Review, 78 (1988), pp. 78-690. Administrative Office of the United States Courts, Annual Report of the Director, Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, various years. Gregory Aharonian, â€Å"Internet Patent News Service,† http://metalab. unc. edu/patents/ipnsinfo. html, 1999. William L. Baldwin and John T. Scott, Market Structure and Technological Change, Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1987. Ian A. Calvert, â€Å"An Overview of Interference Practice,† Journal of the Patent Office Society, 62 (1980), pp. 290-308. Ian A. Calvert and Michael Sofocleous, â€Å"Interference Statistics for Fiscal Years 1989 to 1991,† Journal of the Patent and Trademark Office Society, 74 (1992), pp. 822-826. Sabra Chartrand, â€Å"Facing High-Tech Issues, New Patents Chief in Reinventing a Staid Agency,† New York Times, July 14, 1995, p. 17. Michael P. Chu, â€Å"An Antitrust Solution to the New Wave of Predatory Patent Infringement Litigation,† William and Mary Law Review, 33 (1992), pp. 1341-68. Wesley M. Cohen and Richard C. Levin, Empirical Studies of Innovation and Market Structure,† in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D. Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York: North-Holland, 1989, volume II, chapter 18. Wesley M. Cohen, Richard C. Levin, and David C. Mowery, â€Å"Firm Size and R&D Intensity: A Re-Examination,† Journal of Industrial Economics, 35 (1987), pp. 543-563. Paul A. Gompers and Josh Lerner, The Venture Capital Cycle, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999. Jeremy Greenwood and Boyan Jovanovic, â€Å"The IT Revolution and the Stock Market,† American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 89 (1999) forthcoming. Robert L. Harmon, Patents and the Federal Circuit, Washington: Bureau of National Affairs, 1991. Rebecca Henderson, â€Å"Underinvestment and Incompetence as Responses to Radical Innovation: Evidence from the Photolithographic Alignment Equipment Industry,† Rand Journal of Economics, 24 (1993), pp. 248-270. Michael C. Jensen, â€Å"Presidential Address: The Modern Industrial Revolution, Exit, and the Failure of Internal Control Systems,† Journal of Finance, 48 (1993), pp. 831-880. John Jewkes, David Sawers, and Richard Stillerman, The Sources of Invention, London: St. Martins Press, 1958. William Kingston, â€Å"Is the United States Right about ‘First-to-Invent'? ,† European Intellectual Property Review, 7 (1992), pp. 23-226. Mary S. Koen, Survey of Small Business Use of Intellectual Property Protection: Report of a Survey Conducted by MO-SCI Corporation for the Small Business Administration, Rolla, Missouri: MO-SCI Corp. , 1990. Gloria K. Koenig, Patent Invalidity: A Statistical and Substantive Analysis, New York: Clark Boardman, 1980. Samuel Kortum a nd Josh Lerner, â€Å"Does Venture Capital Spur Innovation? ,† National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper No. 6846, 1998. Josh Lerner, â€Å"Patenting in the Shadow of Competitors,† Journal of Law and Economics, 38 (1995), pp. 63-595. Josh Lerner, â€Å"Small Businesses, Innovation, and Public Policy,† in Zoltan Acs, editor, Are Small Firms Important? , New York: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1999, forthcoming. Josh Lerner and Robert Merges, â€Å"The Control of Strategic Alliances: An Empirical Analysis of Biotechnology Collaborations,† Journal of Industrial Economics (Special Issue on â€Å"Inside the Pin Factory: Empirical Studies Augmented by Manager Interviews. †), 46 (1998), pp. 125-156. Robert P. Merges, Patent Law and Policy, Charlottesville: Michie Company, 1992. National Venture Capital Association, 1999 National Venture Capital Association Yearbook, Arlington, Virginia: National Venture Capital Association, 1999. Michael Peltz, â€Å"High Tech’s Premier Venture Capitalist,† Institutional Investor, 30 (June 1996), pp. 89-98. Jennifer R. Reinganum, â€Å"The Timing of Innovation: Research, Development and Diffusion,† in Richard Schmalensee and Robert D. Willig, editors, Handbook of Industrial Organization, New York: North-Holland, 1989, volume I, chapter 14. Miriam Rosen, â€Å"Texas Instruments' $250 Million-a-Year Profit Center,† American Lawyer, 14 (March 1992), pp. 56-63.

Bar coding

A taxonomic method that identifies the species of an organism by using a small genetic marker in the mitochondrial DNA of the organism is DNA bar coding. The mitochondrion of most eukaryotes contains the mitochondrial DNA, and the rate of mutations is faster that are responsible for a significant variation in the DNA sequences of the mitochondria between the species. The identification of the species via DNA bar coding relies entirely upon the short fragment of mitochondrial DNA.Recently interest is increasing to use a short sequence of tags namely bar codes for identifying and documentation of the species. (Blaxter,2003, Hebert and Gregory,2005). The standard sequence of the DNA used as a bar code is the mitochondrial gene cytochrome c oxidase I or COI. A number of studies show that utilizing barcode gives accuracy in the classification of the species. (Kerret. et. al, 2007). The chitons live near the edge of the ocean they are mollusks.The chitons of the north pacific region are di verse comprising around 80 species, and all these species belong to the genus Mopalia. (Eernisse). The present paper discusses on identification of the species of the genus Mopalia from the extremely diverse community of chitons of the north pacific region using the DNA bar coding. DNA bar coding: To characterize the species of the organisms a novel technique exists termed â€Å"DNA bar coding†, and the technique uses a short sequence of DNA on the standard position of the genome.Obtaining the DNA sequences is quick as they comprise a very short sequence in comparison with the whole genome. The cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 of the mitochondrial region is the standard bar code region that contains a length of 648 nucleotide base pairs. There is a variation of the DNA bar codes among the individuals of the same species, but it is little. The effectiveness of the DNA bar code is directly dependent on the minor variation within the species, which is smaller than the differences be tween the species.(Consortium). Genus Mopalia: Fauna and flora of the north pacific region is diverse with long coastline and cool temperatures. Many species of the chitons play an important role in the ecology of the rocky shorelines. The Mopalia group has its recent origin with an interesting morphological similarity that attracts case study for DNA bar coding. DNA bar coding using the genus Mopalia: Up to now focus of the studies on DNA bar coding was mainly with the collection of the species within the geographical areas. (Hebert et. al,2003a).Studies in DNA bar coding with reference to the monophyletic groups is less leaving the ambiguity whether this technique is useful in distinguishing the closely related species. (Moritz and Cicero,1994)The present study uses the genus Mopalia, a challenging case study for the DNA bar coding methodology. The genus Mopalia is a recently originated; monophyletic that has a wider geographical occurrence. (Kelly et. al, 2007). Kelly et. al stud ied 19 species of the genus Mopalia, and six closely related species that out group the 131 individuals of the total of the 25 species used.The character-based assessment referred to as the characteristic attribute organizations system is fast, that avoids the false-positive data and it also retains the information on evolution that is in the character-state data. (Desalle et. al, 2005). This approach gives a new perspective to the methods of DNA bar coding. This kind of information is more like a traditional taxonomy. (Desalle et. al, 2005). The CAOS method or the character based method gives clear information, and getting the information is faster, and there is accuracy in the identification of the query sequences of the given data set.The CAOS method is sensitive that distinguishes the taxa of the monophyletic group of the closely related species with a very short sequence of the mitochondrial DNA. The advantage in this method is that it preserves the evolutionary information in the form of character data that avoids the false-positive identification of the query sequences. The number of diagnostics that supports the placement of a query sequence in a clade also used as a confidence value. The bar coding group has no relevance with the CAOS method; this is because the diagnostic character distinguishes monophyletic groups.While distinguishing the monophyletic groups, reference is not a requirement about the relative degree of divergence within and between the taxa. The additional advantage with the CAOS approach is its use as a means of cataloguing the diagnostic molecular characteristics used to distinguish the species. These diagnostics complement the traditional taxonomy. (De Salle et. al, 2005). Even though the description of the species depends on the multiple lines of evidence, the CAOS approach is a good tool to identify significant intraspecific divergences.Additional evidence that includes morphological, geographical, ecological, and behavioral tha t is diagnostic for the new taxon. The CAOS method preserves the character state information, reports diagnostic differences for each node. This method helps the taxonomists to identify and describe divergent organisms that require further scrutiny. (Blaxter,2004). In this method threshold values for the species level are not necessary, which addresses the critical issues in other methods. (Meyer and Paulay,2005). This method of DNA bar coding corrects some pitfalls of the distance based approaches.The inclusion of the evolutionary and taxonomic information in this method gives a context in which there is interpretation of the sequence data and gives a real promise to the DNA bar coding. The CAOS method gives a way to the researchers’ confrontation to identify and make the sense of diversity. Conclusions: The distance based methods for DNA bar coding lack the accuracy that largely depend on the degree of disparity between the intra and site-specific variation that is the bar coding gap. (Meyer and Paulay,2005).Insufficiency in sampling the taxon will increase the disparity that increased the apparent accuracy. CAOS method of DNA bar coding addresses the problems associated with the distance based methods of bar coding. References: Blaxter, M. (2003). Molecular systematics—counting angels with DNA, Nature, 2003, vol. 421, pp. 122–124 Hebert, P. D. N. & Gregory, T. R. (2005),The promise of DNA bar coding for taxonomy. System Biology (54), pp. 852–859. DNA bar coding, consortium for the bar code of life. Available on http://barcoding. si. edu/, retrieved on 30 October 2007.

Marketing transportation homework Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Marketing transportation homework - Essay Example Supplying and selling goods across international boundaries are affected by different macroeconomic factors. They can be political in nature where the tariffs, Non-Tariff Barriers and import quotas imposed by the host country can affect the supply chain. Free trade policy has significantly decreased these barriers to trade. Currency fluctuation in foreign country, size of the market, income profile of the consumers and economic infrastructure exhibit distinct effects on supply chain. Also the foreign country is subjected to change due to cultural and regional differences. Before starting any business across national boundaries of a country these factors must be taken into account. After considering the feasibility and profitability the firm approaches to different countries. This whole process comprises of series of activities such as international documentation, following the terms and conditions of sales, methods of payment through international freight forwarders. The shipment coming from another country must contain a certificate of origin which indicates the country from which it belongs and invoices supporting commercial and financial activities. There must be a letter of instruction to the shipper and a declaration from the shipper for ensuring the safety and security of the product. Terms of sales, known as Inco terms 2000, are mandatory for every exporter to follow. Free alongside Ship (FAS), where it is the seller’s responsibility to make necessary arrangements for delivery of the goods, assuming all the risks associated with delivery, Free on Board (FOB), where the responsibility of all risks is on the seller till the point of delivery. Once the shipment crosses the ship’s rail, responsibility of goods is totally on the buyer. Another example can be Delivery Duty Paid (Seller’s is obliged to pay the cost of delivering the goods and

Personal consumption journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Personal consumption journal - Essay Example Reason for purchase: Where I work, I am quite limited to what I can buy to eat depending on the day. On days when I am alone in the office, I cannot leave the office premises to buy food. In this case therefore, I am limited to restaurants that deliver fast foods. This has proven to be extremely expensive, therefore, I try no to do it very often. The meal consisted of chow mien, and 2 entrays with soup. I choose this because it was the most appropriate for the money that I had at the moment. I could also eat half of the meal then half later. Reason for purchase: I really needed the face wash. I have always loved the Nivea brand for its high quality products. I was more inclined to purchasing the face wash as it was cheaper by 1$ and I thought I would save this dollar for other reasons especially buying lunch. I would have selected Olay Essentials Refreshing Face Wash which is cheaper and went at 3.9$, but Nivea fulfils my need. Reason for purchase: I purchased this product as it was two dollars cheaper. In as much I do not like the brand, I like the fact that it is cheaper, and it will serve the purpose (Lecture notes, 2014). It is on very rare occasions that I get the chance to save this much. I would have preferred L’Oreal though for its good quality. Reason for purchase: From the response from my cat, I can easily tell that Fancy Feast Cat Food is delicious. I also purchased this product as it contains a combination of ingredients that have shown good results on my cat’s wellbeing. The product is better than Delta Pet which did mot yield good results with my cat. Reason for purchase: I purchased this item as I wanted to add something to my wardrobe. It has been a while since I purchased something new. I was also more motivated in making this purchase as the item was cheaper and would me increase my savings (Lecture notes, 2014). Reason for purchase: My week

Confederacies and Chiefdoms Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Confederacies and Chiefdoms - Essay Example   There were three main confederacies that inhabited the Eastern North America, namely the Hurons, the Iroquois and the Powhattans (Johnson & Smith, 2003). The three confederacies took the form of having one single leader who was in charge of different tribes or communities that had been united to form a confederacy. The confederacies were mainly found in the regions of Southern Ontario, near lakes Ontario and Erie, where the Huron confederacy occupied, while the Iroquois Confederacy occupied the central New York region and the Powhattans occupied the Chesapeake regions (Johansen, 2005). On the other hand, the chiefdoms were organizations of a single community under the leadership of their chiefs, who wielded much authority and powers over the people and established informal government structures, with their aides under them, who were responsible for overseeing the implementation of the chief’s authority by the different sections of the community. The chiefdoms occupied the major river ways of the Mississippi River hence their being referred to as the Mississippian chiefdoms (Milner, 2006). The advantages in both forms of political organization is that the coming together of tribes and communities gave the political organizations the strength to fight against their enemies as opposed to when they could fight as single tribes or communities. However, the disadvantage is that the political organizations allowed for the leaders to exploit their subjects since their word was the authority.   Therefore, the subjects had to share the spoils of their hunting, gathering and agricultural exploits with the leaders, through paying such exploits as tribute to the leaders (Milner, 2006). The population estimate of the confederacies and the chiefdoms in the eastern North America region has been the subject of controversy between archeologists. However, there is an agreement between the archeologists, based on the archeological artifacts that have been discovered in this region, that hunting and gathering was the main social and economic activity of the people, while

Critical thinking-onion Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Critical thinking-onion - Coursework Example Furthermore, the website also provides video backup for the existing written texts. Some of the videos are automatic such that they start as soon as one clicks into the link. The website has various headlines. For instance, New Study Finds Therapy, Antidepressants Equally Effective At Monetizing Depression, Grandchild, Grandfather Equally Dreading Collaborating For School Interview Project among others. The satirical source conveys a partisan bias in the manner in which it delivers information. For example, the satirical source address success in finding an antidepressant that has great effectiveness at depression monetization (Norman 1). However, new turn of events comes when the author diverts attention into its financial benefits to its dealers. Norman, Ok. New Study Finds Therapy, Antidepressants Equally Effective At Monetizing Depression. New York: The Onion, February 17, 2015. Accessed on February 18, 2015 from

DiscussionThe Traveling Salesman Problem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

DiscussionThe Traveling Salesman Problem - Essay Example In particular, the paper discusses how a business manager can effectively deliver a specific food product to major hotels located in the five cities. Transport problems, in business management, are considered as networks. A network, according to Shenoy et al (1989), is a set of nodes and arcs, where nodes are destinations and arcs are routes followed. In the problem, nodes are the cities, while arcs are the routes linking the cities. Apart from the nodes and arcs, a business manager considers capacity of a route, maximum flow of an entire system, and activity times in each path or route. In solving delivery problems, business managers use Critical Path Method (CPM) and Project Evaluation Review Technique (PERT). CPM uses the concept of critical activity and critical path in solving transport problems. A critical activity, in a network, is an activity whose time of start affects completion time of the entire project. In delivery problems, critical activities include loading and offloading, fueling and servicing, and drivers’ exchange times. In the delivery problem, critical activities also include time taken by a driver and /or a turn-boy to have breakfast, lunch, dinner, or supper. All these activities determine how fast or slow delivery to hotels in the five cities will be. Therefore, in CPM, a manager identifies points with these activities and organizes them such that minimum time and cost is spent in one complete flow of the food product (Shenoy et al., 1989). In PERT, direction of a flow is not fixed and is thus, considered as random variable. A probabilistic model is, therefore, used to identify a route with the shortest flow time. PERT considers activity time (t0), optimistic time (a), pessimistic time (b), and most likely time (m). Activity time measures duration of an activity, while optimistic time is the shortest possible time an activity can take. Pessimistic time is the longest possible time an activity

Internatoinal business mangement 3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Internatoinal business mangement 3 - Assignment Example Hence, a prudent thing to do is to expand the market internationally in the effort to increase profitability and survival at the same time (Hill, 2012). Expanding internationally has many benefits, which increase chances of survival. An organization is able to boost its reputation and boost the staff morale. In addition, the existing products are introduced to new markets, especially if they have become less popular in the domestic markets. The firm’s overreliance on the domestic markets reduces and the risks, though hard to do away with can be spread. The great sales volume as well translate into higher profits However, in establishing a business internationally, it requires coordinated effort as well as sustained management effort. This practically implies management talent. This is easily attained by just setting up an economic model. Such a model is meant for solving problems as it offers a structured solution to the dilemma under review. Global industries are those industries whose firms must compete in all world markets. These industries have the characteristic of gaining economies of scale across markets. These companies pursue a global strategy whereby they compete in all markets and they provide the same product for each market. They identify customer needs and wants in the international borders. Global industries are also characterized by high development and recurrent costs, thus requiring more than one market to recover the costs. The following firms are categorized in the global firms’ category as they have those features. Movie making, bulk chemicals, pharmaceuticals, branded food products, television manufacturing, personal computers and airline travel (Hill, 2012). Multidomestic industries on the other hand, are those industries with a strategy of producing products and services, which are commonly tailored to individual countries. Innovation comes locally and managers decentralize decision-making as well as encourage local sourcing. They

The English Parliament and the French Monarchy Essay Example for Free

The English Parliament and the French Monarchy Essay England and France both developed very different governmental systems during the sixteenth century. Great Britain created a governmental system on which there is little infringement upon the rights of the people, and there is a parliamentary government to keep the royal power in check. The French monarchy was the exact opposite. The monarchs ruled absolutely and controlled all the affairs that took place in the kingdom. Although the English and French of the sixteenth century evolved differently, their governments both generated great power and wealth. The English parliamentary system incorporated the ideal of a society where the people have the power. This in turn was backed by a powerful ruling class of nobles and royalty. This provided an efficient bureaucratic government that mirrors the Democratic-Republic system that is currently employed in America today. Resulting from no direct taxation, in exchange for the increase in price of royal services, the majority of the population did not have to pay exorbitant amounts to coexist in an environment with powerful figureheads. The wealth generated was then kept inside of the royalty resulting from the nobles requiring the royal services. The commoner peasant class was not constrained by the governments financial burdens. This lead to the rise in the lower classes economically, which led to better furnishings, diet, and extra capital. The extra money then was poured into the adventurous joint-stock companies which financed voyages to Africa, India, and China. This resulted in lucrative profits from the rare commodities. The governments investment in this industry also led to a large cash flow and an increase in prestige and power in its venture throughout the uncharted seas. The Absolute Monarchy of France took the idea of prestige and power to a new level. Taxation was placed upon sales, salt trade, and households. This generated huge new wealth for the French government. However, the French government consisted mainly of the Absolute Monarch and his cabinet. The power of the nobles was leeched from them as they sought entertainment and fine foods from the bottomless pockets of the court of the Absolute Monarch. Extravagant events that led to the decreased power of the nobles were brought to a whole new level as King Louis IX reigned. He is quoted as  saying I am the state, because of his absolute influence on the French government. Great power succumbed to this as he envisioned conquering both Spain and Germany. However, other nations stepped in to keep a balanced system of kingdoms within flourishing Europe. The English idea of the power of the people through parliament and no direct taxes was drastically different from the power strapped people of the French Absolute Monarchy. However, the English and French governments both proved very successful in accomplishing their goals of obtaining huge wealth and power through their radically different ruling systems.

Chinese Exploitation And Discrimination In Canada History Essay

Chinese Exploitation And Discrimination In Canada History Essay European colonial period is characterized by the conquering of foreign land, the exploitation of resources and slaves, and the imposition of European culture. From European colonialism arose many atrocious acts such as the Triangular Slave Trade and the decimation of many indigenous populations. Ideologically, the concept of orientalism emerged from European colonialism where it became lens in which the West sees the people of the East as weak and inferior. European explorers sought to make sense of their travels by drawing from classical knowledge, religious sources, and mythology (Glyn, Meth and Willis 2009); it was a corrupt archive on the cultural identity of the colonized based on sweeping generalizations and stereotypes that crossed several cultural and national boundaries (ibid). The information isolated the colonized and separated them as the other from Europeans (ibid). The creation of a general inferior identity allowed colonial powers to legitimize their colonization and e xploitation of these people (ibid). Although Great Britain and other powerful countries in Europe actively colonized much of the modern Third World and created many obstacles for their future development, other non-colonizing countries do are not guilt-free. Loyal historical colonies like Canada have had a similarly exploitative relationship with Third World citizens, including its blatant discrimination against non-European settlers such as the Chinese. Contrary to the popular belief that Canada has always had a benevolent relationship with people of the Third World, Canada carried forth the orientalist view from European colonialism and used them to justify its discrimination against and exploitation of Chinese immigrants from 1880 to 1947. Under the pretense of orientalism, Canada exploited Chinese labour in building their national railway, created racism immigration policies to keep the Chinese out, and withheld fundamental rights on the grounds of ethnicity. Canada exploited Chinese immigrants as a solution to the labour shortage in building the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) from 1881 to 1885. Throughout the four years and even following it, Chinese suffering outweighed their benefits while Canada was able to complete its railroad on time for a considerably cheaper price. The completion of the CPR was extremely important to Canada because it was a physical means to unite the different regions of Canada together as a country (Baureiss 2007:15). Canada had a lot at stake in the CPR project where a delay in its construction could lead to British Columbias secession from the union of Canada (ibid). In order to meet the completion deadline, the CPR contractor, Andrew Onderdonk, was granted permission from the federal government to import Chinese labourers to compensate for the insufficient Canadian labour force (Wang 2006:11). The Chinese immigrants were allowed entry only for the purposes of building the railroad; Canada was not in favour o f having permanent Chinese settlements and primarily hired men who would presumably return home to their families upon completion (ibid). With the extra labour force of approximately 15 000 Chinese labourers working on the Western portion of the CPR, the railroad was completed on time (Yu 2009:16). Canada also benefit from the low wages that they paid the Chinese immigrants. In the construction of the CPR, white Canadian labourers were paid an average wage of $1.50 to $1.75 while the Chinese labourers were paid $1.00 with the mandate to purchase their provisions solely from the company store (Baureiss 2007:15). Although the two groups performed the same tasks, Canada justified the difference using the orientalist stereotype that the Chinese could survive on a lower wage than the white Canadian labourers (Whiteley, 1929: 342). The railway company saved money in paying cheaper wages and also earned profits in selling provisions to Chinese labourers (ibid). Orientalism created an unequal power relation between Canada and the Chinese immigrants where the Chinese served to benefit Canada. A tragic example is the 4 000 deaths of Chinese labourers working on the CPR as a result of poor working conditions, disease, landslides and accidental explosions (Toronto Star 1986:F.2) For those who survived, Canada did not make an attempt to include or integrate the Chinese into Canadian society because they were not truly welcome and were expected to leave anyway (Wang 2006:12). However, nearing completion of the CPR many Chinese labourers were dismissed early and found themselves with insufficient funds to finance their return fare back to China (ibid). Many descended into poverty as they lost employment with the railway company and others resorted to labouring in mines (ibid). The sole reason that the Chinese were allowed entry into Canada was to advance Canadas own interests in completing the railway in the most efficient and cost effective manner; in complete disregard for the well-being of the Chinese, they opened the gates for the destitute in China in order for Canada to exploit their cheap labour and then abandon them. Canada initially decided to import Chinese because orientalist beliefs dictated that the Chinese were stereotypically inferior in hard labour (Wang 2006:12); Canada would be able to exploit their inferiority and still use them to complete the railroad efficiently. Although this orientalist perception of the Chinese is inaccurate, the fact that Chinese immigrants were imported into a disadvantaged position forced them into the powerless stereotype as they were subject to Canadian interests. They were allowed entry into Canada in accordance to the amount of labour needed by Canada, and they worked at any offered in order to survive. In p urposefully pushing a number of Chinese immigrants into the orientalist stereotype, Canada was able to prove the orientalist knowledge as true and thus justify their exploitation of cheap Chinese labour. As exemplified in the CPR project, Canadas relationship with the Chinese people from the then developing country of China is in no way benevolent or good-willed; on the contrary Canada used and promoted orientalist perceptions of the Chinese in order to rationalize the exploitation of their labour. Canada subsequently discriminated against the Chinese systematically through a racially exclusive immigration policy. The orientalist stereotypes of the Chinese fuelled Canadas institutionally racist immigration policy as they primarily focused on defending against the sojourner image of transitory labourers, who had come [to Canada] to find a fortune and return with it to China (Baureiss 2007:22). Believing in this sojourner stereotype, Canadians felt threatened by the Chinese labourers competitive edge and feared for their job security (ibid). Moreover, in 1903 Prime Minister Wilfred Laurier publically supported the racist and orientalist ideals in his statement to the House of Commons where he said in my opinion there is not much room for the Chinaman in Canada (Winter 2008:122). In response to the wantlessness for the Chinese, Canada passed racially discriminatory regulations through the 1885 Act to Restrict and Regulate Chinese Immigration into Canada which necessitated a $50 pa yment for entry know as the head tax (ibid). However the head tax seemed to reinforce the sojourner stereotype as Chinese men arrived in Canada to work and often sent large sums of their salaries home to their families rather than spending it on the Canadian economy (Baureiss 2007:22). The orientalist stereotype fuelled further intolerance for the Chinese, even though it ignores the fact that the head tax was designed to discourage permanent Chinese settlements in Canada; it was presumably too expensive for a Chinese family to afford the head tax for all family members (ibid). In response to the growing intolerance for the Chinese, Canada took intensified measures to stop Chinese immigration, the head tax was raised to $100 in 1902 and then $500 in 1904 the equivalent of two years worth of wages for an average worker (Wang 2006:12). With the hike in price for the head tax, many men who immigrated ahead of their families lost hope of bringing their wives or children to Canada and fo r many years [the Chinese] community became a bachelor society (Plaitiel 1988:A8). As men working on a dollar a day could not afford to bring their families to Canada, Chinese immigration was significantly curtailed and the Canadian government profited $23 million generated by approximately 81 000 Chinese immigrants (Winter 2008:122), however Canadas intolerance was not satiated. In 1923 Canada replaced the head taxes with the Chinese Immigration Act that prohibited Chinese immigration altogether for a total of twenty-four years (Winter 2008:122). The act gave many Chinese workers the ultimatum of being separated from their family permanently or giving up their immigrant status to return home (Wang 2006:12). The immigration policies set forth by the Canadian government are not only racially discriminatory, but it spread the general orientalist view of unworthiness and undesirability in the Chinese ethnicity. The orientalist stereotypes of the Chinese initially caused Canadians to unwelcome the Chinese but the implementation of head taxes seemingly reinforced the stereotypes, without consideration towards the actual circumstances and created a completely intolerant society. The exclusion of the Chinese in Canada was justified by the orientalist stigma that the Chinese are an unwanted ethnicity in Canada, and thus legitimating any means to eliminate them; the h ead tax that created a financial burden on the Chinese, separated families between countries, and prevented a second generation of Chinese Canadians were valid. Moreover, the eventual total refusal of Chinese immigrants was substantiated based on the orientalist sojourner identity created for the Chinese immigrants dictated them as morally inferior and self-interested. Canadas creation of an orientalist lens in which to view the Chinese through blatantly racism immigration policies contradicts its perceived identity as being benevolent and accommodating to people of the Third World in development. In addition to barring the entry of Chinese immigrants, Canada systemically discriminated against Chinese immigrants already within Canada by legally withholding fundamental human rights. For example, the Chinese were excluded from political life and did not have the right to vote (Baureiss 2007:23). Although they were initially granted voting rights like immigrants of other ethnicities, the right to vote was disallowed to the Chinese in British Columbia in 1985 in provincial and municipal elections (ibid). Later, the federal government also refused to give the Chinese voting rights in federal elections (ibid). Prime Minister John A. Macdonald further justified disenfranchisement of the Chinese by stating that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the Chinese have no British instinct and their mind [is] not suited for democracy (Baureiss 2007:23). Macdonalds statement crystallized the fact that the Chinese are denied rights based on the knowledge about their race as communicated by orientalism; the Chinese are inferior because without British instinct, their intelligence is too elementary for democracy. The Chinese in Canada did not have access to equal opportunity and were further excluded from numerous jobs based on racial grounds. Initially, the exclusion from participating in politics led to disqualification from certain prestigious or powerful professions that included law, pharmacy and accounting (Baureiss 2007:27). Similar to the discriminatory immigration policy, the denial of equality rights to the Chinese stemmed from the oriental stereotype of the sojourner. Since the sojourner stereotype dictated that the Chinese immigrants would all leave after amassing their wealth, Canadians rationalized that it was unnecessary to grant them equal opportunity rights because they would return home and not remain in Canada permanently (Baureiss 2007:23). As a result, in 1878 British Columbia passed a resolution that prohibited Chinese immigrants from working in the provincial public sector (Baureiss 2007:26). Subsequently, the Chinese were also denied positions in many skilled occupatio ns such as boat-makers, mechanics and merchants (ibid). Disqualification became widespread in so many different professions because of restrictive legislation that the Chinese were marginalized to a very limited number of industries such as agriculture, retail and services trades and certain elements of lumbering and fishing low-paying professions that required very minimal education or training (ibid:27). In an effort to combat the greedy and self-interested sojourner, there were a limited number of tasks that the Chinese were eligible to perform within these designated industries. For example, the Chinese were only welcome as cheap farm labourers and could not buy or lease their own land by law (ibid). Being surrounded by these restrictions made the service industry the only major avenue available and the Chinese were generally marginalized to become laundrymen, grocers or homemakers (ibid). Through orientalist knowledge, the Chinese were perceived as weak and incompetent compared to white Canadians, validating their exclusion from franchise and from many more respectable professions. The acceptance and creation of an orientalist identity justified that any measures including those that violate the fundamental human rights the Chinese should be entitled to were justified so long as they cater towards protecting the employment opportunities of white Canadians. In essence, orientalism was a tool for Canada to rationalize the second-class treatment of the Chinese and the refusal of several inalienable human rights. The blatant institutional racism that Canada created under the pretense of orientalist knowledge not only shattered down its perceived kindness but it reveals the hostility that Canada showed to the Chinese. Canadas discrimination and exploitation of the Chinese people directly contradicts the belief that Canada is benevolent towards people of the Third World and Third World countries in general. Canada accepted and further enhanced the orientalist views of the Chinese to exploit their cheap labour in constructing the CPR. Subsequently once the Chinese were no longer useful, Canada justified discriminatory immigration policies to stop Chinese immigration with orientalist stereotypes. In regards to the Chinese immigrants in Canada, the government systemically withheld fundamental political and equality rights from them and justified the second-class treatment with orientalist knowledge of inferiority. Historically, Canada has evidently not been as benevolent towards people of the Third World as it portrays itself to be. Although conditions have significantly improved since the nineteenth century, Canada still has not lived up to the high standards of benevolence and generosity as immigrat ion policies remain exclusive in many other ways. Canadians may see themselves as peaceful and kind to the multicultural people of the Third World but whether it becomes the truth or not depends on what actions Canada decides to take. Canada can choose to make it a priority to root out orientalism or to simply lower the standards of Canadas role in helping and empowering people of the Third World.

Organizational Behavior Concepts: Self-Analysis

Organizational Behavior Concepts: Self-Analysis Vineesh Nambiar   Organizational Behavior Concepts: Self-Analysis and Team Assessments with Recommendations and Analysis The makings of a successful organization can generally be traced back to its ability to define itself from day one; very few organizations succeed if top level management doesnt lay down the rule of the land as far as expected Organizational Behavior is concerned. What exactly is Organizational Behavior? It basically relates to the study of the structurally set-up social system in an enterprise. In laymens terms, Organizational Behavior is a deeper look at the relationship employees (as individuals as well as in groups) have with a firm. The purpose of this paper is to examine different aspects of Organizational Behavior at various levels while simultaneously identifying managerial skills sets and attitudes that are beneficial at aiding in the successful fulfillment of objectives as it pertains to employee management. Using the CROAPI model, this paper looks to delve deeper into the following: Human Process Individual in the Organization Group Dynamics Influencing Others Organizational Processes Primarily this paper looks to shed light on self and critical evaluation of the concept of the team; mainly concerning itself with the important and practical guidelines associated with the facets that traditionally fall under the larger umbrella of Organizational Behavior. Starting with team cohesion, the aforementioned facets are as follows:    Team Cohesion Aristotle once said that The whole is greater than the sum of its parts and there can be no quote in existence that better summarizes the underlying relevance of team cohesion. Cohesiveness among teammates in any organization is essential for the maximization of effectiveness and efficiency when it comes to a firm. The similarity among members, the size of a team, the interaction between members and the overall penchant that a team shows for actively and aggressively pursuing success are some of the factors looked into when it comes to team cohesion. Social Loafing The next section deals with the phenomenon known as social loafing. A term devised to reflect the inability of some members in an organization to contribute a relatively acceptable level of performance when it comes to group tasks, potential and existing social loafers must always be on the radar of managers. There are a myriad of ways in which this issue can be dealt with: emphasizing the importance attached to a task, highlighting the work contribution of an employee and reducing the size of a task group are some of these. Motivation A manager has to put up with numerous expectations that sound easy on paper but nigh impossible in practice; keeping an employee or a set of employees at a constant level of high motivation falls under this category. This section of the report examines different theories that are associated with employee motivation as a unique, separate concept. These theories include Maslows Theory of Motivation, the Equity Theory of Motivation and the Expectancy Theory of Motivation. Personality Using the Five-Factor Model, this report aims at outlining different personality traits and establishes relevant relationships between these and employee performance. The parameters used under this model are Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness to experience and Extraversion (CANOE for short). Gauging personalities is often an underrated aspect of managerial expertise and hence, this paper looks to expand on the topic in an analytical manner. Perception The perception can arise in an organization as the process of receiving information about, and making sense of, the world around us. This can lead to different problems within an organization or team. Creating Self-Fulfilling Prophecies and Minimization of Stereotyping, Attribution Errors, Halo Effect it can be managed in an organization. Values across Cultures Cultural values are very often overlooked when managerial decisions are undertaken. The prevalence of a one-size-fits-all mentality is generally found to be the culprit beyond this sort of dodgy decision making. Via the use of Hostfedes data on Germany and the United Arab Emirates, an analysis has been carried out in this report with emphasis on the differences between collectivism and individualism as well as power distance as it relates to potential managerial techniques that need to be employed. This paper ultimately aims at not just critical self-evaluation of the team but also the analytical formulation of recommendations that can aid in systematically and logically dealing with any plausible problems that can arise under the gamut of Organizational Behavior. Using conceptually-approved managerial measures of evaluation, the following pages seek to ask questions and deliver answers to many different aspects of Organizational Behavior. The paper will cover the following individual sections Self and Team analysis Team Cohesion Social Loafing Motivation Personality Perception Values Across Culture I have done a self-analysis and have posted a picture of myself in the analysis and also I have interviewed my team members Madison Rase, Duo Wang and Zui Tao on their educational qualifications, professional and career aspirations and the professional achievement that they are proud of. TEAM MEMBER QUALIFICATION AND OBJECTIVE SELF- Vineesh Nambiar I am an international student from India and hold a Bachelors in Computer Science Engineering from Anna University, India. I am currently Pursuing my MBA at SVSU and my interests are in Web Application Development and Cloud Computing. I have 2 years of experience in developing applications using Java and web Applications. My career objective is to pursue a dynamic and challenging career with an organization of repute, which will give value addition to the organization as well as opportunity to enhance professional skills while getting high level of satisfaction and recognition. Madison Rase Madison is currently pursuing a Bachelors degree in chemistry with an anticipated graduation date of May 2017 and simultaneously pursuing an MBA with an anticipated graduation date of May 2018. She is an experienced Lab Technician at the Dow Corning Corporation where she has created and evaluated formulations for customer standards and has also helped in correcting production issues. Her career objective is to have her own business working with the design and production of cars. Duo Wang Duo Wang is an international student from China who holds a Bachelors degree in animation design from Guilin University of Electronic Technology, China. She is currently pursuing her MBA at SVSU. She has an aspiration to work for an animation company. While she was doing her undergraduate degree, she was a member of the students association for three years and, also served as the head of the association for a year. This experience gave her an insight on how to work in a team and what teamwork is all about Zui Tao (Chris) Chris is an international student from China. He earned his Bachelors degree in General Business from SVSU. His aspiration is to have a successful management career in the U.S.A and more specifically in Human Resource Management. He has two years volunteering experience and used to run a department in the association. He is looking forward to reflecting on his personal values with and his abilities. Team cohesion (Appendix A- Figure 2).refers to the degree of attraction people feel toward the team and their motivation to remain members. It is a characteristic of the team, and includes the extent to which its members are attracted to the team, are committed to the teams goals or tasks, and feel a collective sense of team pride. Thus, team cohesion is an emotional experience, not just a calculation of whether to stay or leave the team. It exists when team members make the team part of their social identity. Team development tends to improve cohesion because members strengthen their identity to the team during the development process. Following where the factors that lead to high cohesion of our group where these factors reflect an individuals social identity within the group and beliefs about how team membership will fulfill her or his personal needs. Member Similarity: This was very applicable to our team as all of us are pursuing an MBA degree in SVSU and has definitive objectives after completing the course. Team Size: This is also very relevant to our team as we are at the right number of team members. Member Interaction: we periodically communicate or interact with the team members using E-mails, Text, and group meetings. Team Success: This is the first project we are doing as a team and we expect to perform well and will be willing to work as the same team should we all be together in another course at SVSU. Social Loafing happens when a group member exerts less individual effort when doing an addictive task in groups than when working alone (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p. 224). This occurs when a large group is formed, the lower will be the impact of force on any of the one member in it. Thus, more the people who might be contributing for the group production, the less pressure each person faces and will result less responsible for behaving appropriately and social loafing occurs. Following are the ways by which social loafing can be overwhelmed. Emphasize the importance of the work: People are unlikely to go for free rides when they believe that the tasks that they are performing are vital to the organization. To help this I would explain to my team members the nature of contribution of work they need to do towards the team project. Making the team members identifiable: Social loafing occurs when people feels that they can get away by taking it easy, under conditions in which each individuals contribution cannot be determined. It can only be overcome when ones contribution to an additive task are identifiable. It is that potential loafers are unlikely to loaf if they have the fear of getting caught. Rewarding individuals for the contribution to their teams performance: The employee must be given with a bonus or some sort of recognition when they succeed in their task. In such situations, each member would benefit from the team success which encourages the individuals to contribute for their teams performance. In our team, we appreciate the good work done by each team member in an attempt to motivate each other. Reduced Group size: It will be very easy to track the performance of the individuals in a small group where as in large groups judging of the individuals cannot be done. The members of a team will be cautious about the responsibility when they are in a small group. Our group stated as a small team of 4 which was ideal to manage without issues. Motivation refers to the forces within a person that affect the direction, intensity, and persistence of voluntary behavior (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p. 124). It is one of the several determinants of job performances but not equivalent. People are motivated with the work ethics as they seek interesting and challenging jobs. Managers are the key peoples to motivate the team to reach the organizational goals. Ways of motivating a team: MASLOWs Theory of Motivation: Maslows needs hierarch theory Developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow in the 1940s, the model (Appendix A- Figure 3). condenses and integrates the long list of drives and needs that had been previously studied into a hierarchy of five basic categories (from lowest to highest): physiological (need for food, air, water, shelter, etc.), safety (need for security and stability), belongingness/love (need for interaction with and affection from others), esteem (need for self-esteem and social esteem/status), and self-actualization (need for self-fulfillment, realization of ones potential) (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p. 127). Maslow suggested that we are motivated simultaneously by several primary needs (drives), but the strongest source of motivation is the lowest unsatisfied need at the time. As the person satisfies a lower-level need, the next higher need in the hierarchy becomes the primary motivator and remains so even if never satisfied. We adopted some of the techniques that come under the different categories of the theory to motivate the team members. Physiological Needs Provide input for employee salaries and bonuses. Safety Needs Ensure the correct tools for the job are available. Create an environment where individuals are comfortable challenging requests that are dangerous. Social Needs Schedule weekly project team meetings. (Adopted) Get the team together to celebrate project milestones. (Adopted) Esteem Needs Recognize team members for excellent contributions to the project. (Adopted) Ensure each team member understands how important they are to the project. (Adopted) Self-Actualization Needs Consider each team members tasks goals when assigning tasks. (Adopted) Empower team members so that they can develop and grow. (Adopted) EQUITY Theory of Motivation: Equity theory (Appendix A- Figure 4) claims that people desire to attain an equitable balance between the ratios of their outcomes and inputs and the corresponding ratios of comparison to other (Jerald Greenberg, 2011, p. 224). Inequitable states of overpayment inequity and underpayment inequity are undesirable, motivating people to try to attain equitable conditions. Responses to inequity may be either behavioral like raising or lowering ones performance or thinking differently about work contribution, a psychological way. To avoid negative reaction such as strikes, reduced work, resignation overpayment and underpayment inequity must be avoided. In our team, we made sure that the tasks were equally allocated or distributed so that no one team member is overwhelmed with their assigned tasks. Employee engagement: It is described as an emotional involvement in, commitment to, and satisfaction with work (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p.124). In our team after assigning the tasks we made sure that members were in agreement with their assignments so that they have 100% involvement, committed and enjoyed working on their assignments/ tasks. EXPECTANCY Theory of Motivation: A motivation theory based on the ideas that work effort is directed toward behaviors that people believe will lead to desired outcomes (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, P.133).Three components of expectancy theory are: Effort-to-Performance expectancy: It is ones belief that his or he effort towards the task will result in a particular level of performance. Performance-to-Outcome expectancy: This theory is based on the principle that a particular result will be obtained if one displays a specific behavior or performance level. Outcome valences: valence is the expected or desired satisfaction or dissatisfaction an individual feel towards the results. Personality can be defined as the outline of thoughts, emotions and behaviors that characterize a person along with the psychological process associated with those characteristics. Personality have five dimensions which comes under Five-Factor Model (FFM) and they are (CANOE) Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness to experience and Extraversion (Appendix A- Figure 1). Conscientiousness: It is the predisposition of an individual or a person to do what is right, especially to do ones duty well and thoroughly. Agreeableness: Nature of an individual to be compassionate towards others. Neuroticism: It is the tendency of an individual to experience unpleasant emotions such as anxiety, anger, envy, guilt etc. easily. Openness to experience: The tendency of an individual to enjoy new ideas and experiences. Extraversion: It is the characteristics of an individual to seek recreation and to enjoy he company of other people. Following table was used to assess the personality of myself and my team members. Used a scaling factor of 1 through 5 (1-Strongly disagree, 2-Disagree, 3-Neutral, 4-Agree, 5-Strongly agree) to gauge the personality of each team member using Five-Factor Model. FFM Madison Rase Duo Wang Vineesh Nambiar Zui Tao (Chris) Conscientiousness 5 5 5 5 Agreeableness 5 5 5 5 Neuroticism 1 1 1 1 Openness to Experience 5 5 5 5 Extraversion 5 5 5 5 Except for neuroticism all members scored high on the other factors in Five Factor Model (FFM). Job performance can be measured in employee evaluation. This provides the evaluation regarding the employers quality in their work. In order to determine an employees skill set is appropriately matched to the employees job it is important to conduct or perform employee evaluations. The four reasons why assessments are important are: Employee Training and Development: Strength and weakness are the first step steps for evaluating the type of training the employee needs. An evaluation helps understand the type of development programs required to benefit employee and eventually the employer. Employee Performance Goal: Evaluation stipulates the performances standards against the job. Or in other words it is the expected level of performance of job duties of an employee. Performances can be evaluated on a periodic basis as determined by the leadership of the organization. Conflict Management Among Employees: Conflicts arise from the differences in personalities. A personality assessment will help evaluating the root cause for conflicts which needs to be corrected so that the team can perform well. Employee Reward and Recognition: Most organization compensation structure is based on performance measurement through employee evaluations. It gives the upper leadership of an organization to recognize employees hard work, dedication and commitment. Perception (Appendix A- Figure 5). can be defined as the process of receiving information about, and making sense of, the world around us (McShane and Von Glinow, 2015, p. 72). The process begins with the stimuli received through our senses of which some are retained and most screened out after bombarding with our senses. The retained information then gets organized and interpreted. So the process of only attending to some information while ignoring the other is called selective attention and is greatly influenced by the characteristic of the person or object being perceived. Additionally, the characteristics of the perceiver also influence selective attention. So, this can lead to different problems within an organization or team one of which is called confirmation bias. The process of readily accepting confirming information and screening out that are contrary to our values and assumptions is called Confirmation bias. Below are some of the perception related issues an organization or a manager should consider when dealing with team members. Minimization of Stereotyping: stereotyping is something that is existent in all organizations and teams. People engage in stereotyping because it is a natural and mostly nonconscious process. Stereotyping lays the foundation for discriminatory attitudes and behavior. It can be minimized by providing appropriate trainings to team members and by efforts from managers in educating them. Minimization of Attribution Errors: It is the tendency of an individual to explain someones behavior based on the internal factors such as personality or disposition and intern underestimate the influence of external factors have on another persons behavior. One of the major causes for the conflicts between the teams is when attribution error exists so, manager or upper leadership make efforts to cultivate good understanding within the team member thus, reducing conflicts. Creating Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: A self-fulfilling prophecies is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true as a result of the positive feedback between belief and behavior or in other words it is a belief that comes true because we are acting as if it is already true. For example, if one believes that his or her project is strong and feel confident about it the person will most likely write a strong confident letter. This faith in the project and oneself will also serve well when it comes to for example, marketing the project. So, promoting self-fulfilling prophesies will lead to team success. Minimizing Halo Effect: it is a tendency for an impression created in one area to influence opinion in other area. In an organization halo effect occurs when a supervisor gives an employee a rating in all areas of performances based on a general impression of that person. Is also has an impact on employees sees themselves. They tend to develop their own insights about their performances and the companys overall performances based on the management feedback. Halo effect can be reduced by developing a training plan to build the capacity of the managers along with including information on how evaluations can be done more accurately. An Individualism can be defined as a value described to a degree in which the people with a culture emphasize personal uniqueness and independence. Where when it comes for a group with a harmony it becomes collectivisms. Power Distance is the value describing the degree by which people in a culture who accepts power in the society which is unequal. U.A.E from Asia and Germany from Europe where the countries where selected for evaluating Individualism/collectivism and Power distance. VALUE SAMPLE COUNTRY ANALYSIS Individualism/Collectivism High: Germany Low: United Arab Emirates In Germany, small families with a focus on the parent-children relationship rather than aunts and uncles are most common. There is a strong belief in the ideal of self-actualization. Loyalty is based on personal preferences for people as well as a sense of duty and responsibility. United Arab Emirates scored a low for individualism/collectivism. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is dominant, and supersedes most other societal rules and regulations. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes responsibility for fellow members of their group. In collectivist societies offence leads to shame and loss of face, employer/employee relationships are perceived in moral terms (like a family link), hiring and promotion decisions take account of the employees in-group, management is the management of groups. Power Distance High: United Arab Emirates Low: Germany In United Arab Emirates people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which needs no further justification. Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent inequalities, centralization is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat Germany is highly decentralized and supported by a strong middle class. Co-determination rights are comparatively extensive and hence have to be taken into account by the management. A direct and participative communication and meeting style is common, control is disliked and leadership is challenged to show expertise and best accepted when its based on it. From Vince Lombardis quote Individual commitment to a group effortthat is what makes a team work, a company work, a society work, a civilization work. It was a great experience working with the team and we did not find much difficulty in completing the work together. We did follow the basic guidelines upon the team cohesion, personality, controlling social loafing and perception. We put conscious efforts to control any conflicts by establishing a good leadership in the team and also built a team culture among us. Adopting these strategies would eventually lead to a good team and will contribute to a successful organization. References McShane, S. L., Von Glinow, M. A. Y. (2015). Organizational behavior. New York: Irwin/McGraw-Hill Greenberg, Jerald. Behaviour in Organization. Tenth ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2011. Plant, L. (2012). Motivation and feedback influencing change in the goal-setting process (Order No. MR84417). Available from ProQuest Business Collection. (1115315275). Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/1115315275?accountid=960 Lee, S. (1998). The relationship of personality type to self-perceived and faculty-perceived managerial effectiveness among college and university sport/physical education administrators in the republic of korea (Order No. 9820638). Available from ProQuest Business Collection. (304482798). Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/304482798?accountid=960 Townsend, W. (2013). INNOVATION AND THE PERCEPTION OF RISK IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR. International Journal of Organizational Innovation (Online), 5(3), 21-34. Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/1419395542?accountid=960 Alonso, A. (2003). The attribution of motives to organizational citizenship behaviors: The influence of personality, gender and ethnicity (Order No. 3085811). Available from Psychology Database. (305233252). Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/305233252?accountid=960 Yu, C. (2005). An I -P -O model of team goal, leader goal orientation, team cohesiveness, and team effectiveness (Order No. 3202366). Available from ProQuest Business Collection. (305360282). Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/305360282?accountid=960 Suleiman, J., Watson, R. T. (2008). Social loafing in technology-supported teams. Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW), 17(4), 291-309. Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/622218484?accountid=960 Mortenson, S. T. (2002). Sex, communication values, and cultural values: Individualism-collectivism as a mediator of sex differences in communication values in two cultures. Communication Reports, 15(1), 57-70. Retrieved from https://0-search.proquest.com.library.svsu.edu/docview/203808136?accountid=960 APPENDIX A: DIAGRAMS Figure 1. CANOE Figure 2. TEAM COHESION Figure 3. MASLOW THEORY OF MOTIVATION Figure 4. EQUITY THEORY OF MOTIVATION Figure 5. PRECEPTION Types and Forms of Racism: Exploration of the US Types and Forms of Racism: Exploration of the US Racism has been around for a long it and it is quite difficult to point out whether it is going to end today or in the near future. Many people would think of racism in terms of Whites oppressing the Blacks but there are various forms of racial discrimination that we will analyze shortly. Racial discrimination overall is not a good thing. Those who practice it should put themselves on the shoes of those being oppressed and try to visualize how good or bad it is. From there we would have an equal platform of reasoning together. In the United States, there are different groups of people that are discriminated against. This includes; the Native Americans, African Americans, Latin Americans, Arabs and Muslims and Iranians. Introduction Racism in simple terms can be described as the hatred one human being hast towards another human being (Human Rights Watch May, 2008). This hatred is based on the differences in skin color, language, place of origin and cultural customs. One group of individuals believes that their group is better than the other. An example of the worst racism is that of the Whites towards the Africans. Some, even up to today believe that Africans are incomplete creatures. This is what led to the early slave trade and the present enslavement. Racism also exists among the Whites themselves depending on whether one is an Easterner or a westerner. This is influenced by the superpower capability that a country possesses. Racism has led to slavery, war, splitting of nations and formation of new ones and drafting of legal codes. Types of Racism There exist different types of racism as described by Human Rights Watch (May, 2008); the first type is the historical racism. This comes about due to a persons lineage and decent. People with common historical origins, but not necessarily biological characteristics, fall under this category. It is used to categorize nation states in Europe. For example the Nazi eagle, Aryan cross; was believed to be superior to other nations. The second type of racism is the institutional based racism. This is put in place to protect the interests of a certain group and maintain the status quo of inequality among the society members. This can best be expressed by the apartheid rule that was in place in South Africa. The third type of racism is the scientific type of racism. This classifies people to have superior characteristics than the other for example intelligence due to brain size, a fore head which is sloping. It is believed there is a hierarchy of races and this is what was used a justificati on to colonize others. The last type of racism is new racism. This is based on new expressions. This encompasses immigrants, integration and cultural values. Forms of Racism According to Human Rights Watch (May, 2008), racism can be classified into two categories: Minority racism and majority racism. Minority racism is practiced by affluent minority groups that look at themselves as special and in some circumstances; you find that they have support from some external powers. This kind of racism tends to be closely linked with imperialism. It is usually y called minority racism from above. Western imperialism falls under this category as well as the former colonials that practiced apartheid in South Africa. The Whites were unable to exterminate the local Africans as they did with the natives of North America. The Chinese nationalism also falls under this group. The Chinese Diaspora views themselves as a superior ethnic group especially in Southeast Asia. Jews, in Israel, view themselves as a minority group surrounded and oppressed by the Arabs. However, the Jews are many in number in Israel. This emanates from the Arabs desire to oppress the oppressor. Th is view of the Jews is what is known as minority racism from below. Majority racism from above is a populist in nature usually based on racial reversal for example the Hutu and Tutsi genocide in Rwanda or Sinhala, who discriminated the Tamils (Human Rights Watch May, 2008). There is usually a divide and rule force behind this kind of discrimination. In the United States, this can be illustrated by the hatred the natives had against the immigrants. Racism from below is the common form of racism experienced in the West. This is illustrated by discrimination against the African Americans or discrimination against the Native Americans. African American is the most hated group due to the poverty levels they exhibit and the crime rate levels they are involved in. Racism can be more dangerous and hurtful if its forces are being propagated by a well social-economic class. Anti-racism in many cases is involved in trying to distribute power equal in terms of economy, employment opportunities, access to social amenities and education thus eliminating ethnic ten sions that may arise Overview of Racism in the United States Racism in the United States dates back as far as to the colonial era (Anthony 34). Inequality in human rights has been witnessed by the Native Americans, African Americans, Mexican Americans and Asian Americans. Racial discrimination dates as far back as the 17th century up to the 1960s. Only the White Americans enjoyed access to literacy, the right to acquire and own land, citizenship, and the right to vote, immigration and a right to a fair trial in court proceedings. Other European groups like the Jews and the Irish have experienced major social exclusion. Even though racism was officially banned in the mid 20th century, it continues to be experienced in areas of employment, housing, education, lending and government institution. Many people have not accepted the ban and thus racism continues to be experienced in terms of segregation, slavery, reservations, residential schools, internment groupings and Indian wars. Discrimination is also evidenced in terms of religion. Muslims are discriminated against due the activities of extremists and are thus, widely viewed as terrorists (Alvin Poussaint, par 3). Recent Day Racism Situation According to a United Nations Committee on Elimination of Racial Discrimination report (March 2008) reported by Anthony (38), the United States has or it is failing to meet international standards on racial equality. The equality disparities are being witnessed education, housing, criminal justice and healthcare. In March 2006, the same committee criticized the United States for not upholding the right of land ownership policy by the Native American. The committee wanted the United States to enforce the United Nations declaration on the rights of indigenous communities. The United States was also to provide a detailed report on what it had done to promote the culture of indigenous Hawaiian, Alaska and Indian Americans (Alvin Poussaint, par 3). The committee also observed that there was indiscriminate environmental racism and environmental degradation of spiritual areas and also areas that held certain cultural significances. The environmental degradation in question includes mining o n sacred lands. Anthony (37) reports that racial discrimination was also observed in the judicial system. This was so especially with the death penalty and life imprisonment sentence. It was observed that minors were sentenced to either of the two harsh sentences as compared to their other counterparts who received a more lenient sentence having been convicted of the same crime. The committee was outraged by the governments comments that black kids get life without parole because of the many crimes they had committed. The committee was also not happy in the way the United States continued to hold non-U.S. suspects of terrorism in the Guantanamo Bay prison. The wanted the United states to expose the prisoners to a judiciary review. To them, this was just another form of racial discrimination. Ajamu Baraka of the Human rights network observes Racial discrimination has been normalized and accepted as a way of American life (Anti-Defamation League, par 4). The committee advised the United States to set up a Human Rights body that will keep track and oversee racial discrimination or disparities. The committee went ahead to warn the United States that it is not above the law. Racism in the Criminal Justice System According to Anti-Defamation League (par 4), the United States criminal justice system has been mentioned negatively in various print and news media. It is said to be racial based. It is said that African Americans are usually targeted and severely punished as compared to their white counterparts. The following few incidents go on to show the extent to which the criminal justice system is said to be rotten. According to a Human Rights Watch (May, 2008), the Whites and Africans who are involved in drug trafficking are fairly the same. The United States African American population is made up of only 13% and those using drugs are made up of 14%. However, when it comes to arrests made on those dealing with drugs, the majority are African Americans. It beats the logic how come it is only the African Americans who are arrested the most. It is also reported that stops that are made by police involves mainly Blacks and the Latinos (Anthony 62). It is said that 80% of the stops made by NYPD in New York involved either Blacks or Latinos. For these stops, 85 % were frisked while only 8% of the white stops made were frisked. The same happenings are reported to be the same elsewhere in the country. In California, for example, it was found that Blacks were stopped times more compared to the Whites. It has also been revealed that once arrests are made, the Blacks are more likely to remain in jail awaiting trial as compared to the white counterparts. In a 1995 review report on the rate of trial of felonies carried out by the New York State Division of Criminal Justice, it was found out that 33% more Blacks would be detained awaiting trial as compared to their White counterparts 80 % of people convicted of a crime seek a public defender. The higher numbers of people seeking a public defender are Blacks. The public defenders ar e an overworked lot who are underpaid and effectively, it means the poor Blacks who cannot afford the services of a private attorney will contend with the services of a tired and disgruntled public defender. In the end, the Blacks stand a big chance to lose their cases (Anti-Defamation League, par 3). As reported by Anti-Defamation League (par 3), the Equal Justice Initiative released a report on June 2010, arguing that African American are underrepresented or excluded from the criminal jury services. It is reported that in Houston County, Ala, 8 of the 10 African American juries have been barred from participating on death penalty cases. It is said only few cases end up in the trial chambers. The main reason being, the African Americans plead guilty to a crime they did not commit so as to avoid the flawed court process that can sentence them for a long period for a crime they did not commit. It is also reported that Blacks found guilty are likely to receive a sentence that is 10% longer than their white counter parts for a similar crime. The report still goes on to say that 20% more Blacks are likely to be sentenced to prison on drug offences as compared to the Whites while 21% more will receive the compulsory minimum sentence. According to Anthony (2009), in July, 2009, the sentencing Project reported that more people who are not Whites were receiving the long term serving sentences. It reported that 2/3 of the people servicing life imprisonment were either the Blacks or the Latinos. According to the Congressional Testimony for The Sentencing Project report mentioned by Anthony (34), 56% of those in prison convicted of drug offences are the Blacks. This is a big contrast compared their population of 13% and drug users of 14%. The United States Bureau of Justice Statistics shows that a male by born it the year 2001 is likely to go to jail five times and three times for Latinos more than a white boy born in the same year. There are about 16% juvenile Black American youth in the whole population and about 28 % juvenile arrests are made. 37% of the juveniles are imprisoned in juvenile jails and about 56% are sent to adult prisons (Anti-Defamation League, par 5). The United States has the highest percentage of population in prison than any other country in the world (Anti-Defamation League, par 5). However, the majority of the prisoners are Black males. This is according to the ABC News report. It is reported that even after the prison stint, racial discrimination continues to be felt outside prison. Whites who have criminal records are treated better than Blacks who do not have a criminal record. Whites who are released from prison have a higher percentage likelihood of being called back compared to Blacks also who have a criminal record. Impacts of Racism Racism has some negative psychological effect. Delivering a key address, Allavian Poussaint (1993) said; to be black in America is to be a suspect (par 2). A black has to prove that he/she has no ill motive. Competence also has to be proved beyond reasonable doubt. Thus a black will not walk comfortably in the streets with long over his/her shoulder due to security reasons. Racism can impact negatively on one psycho-politically. Black in general has been considered to be evil. Lucifer is depicted to be black. Thus African Americans are considered to be of a dark ancestry. This in other words is promoting white purity and stigmatizing the black race. Overall, the implication is that the Blacks should be segregated, oppressed and enslaved. Racism has led to genocide. Allavian Poussaint (1993) also says that according to the white Americans, the only good Indian is a dead Indian (par 6). This shows how life has been devalued. During the civil rights struggle, several people were killed. Anthony (2009) reiterates that the law is not applied in equal terms. This is especially with the death penalty. It is said that minorities who are sentenced to death are highly likely to be executed as compared with their white counter parts. According to the anti-death penalty Organization Amnesty International, murderers of white people are 6 times likely to be executed as compared to the killers of the black people. It goes to show that the judicial system values White live than that of Blacks and other minority groups. Global Research (2008) has indicated that racism has led to formation of attack gangs. In Southern California for instance, there are African American and Mexican American gangs. The gangs have special mafias who attack each other i.e. the Mexican kills the Blacks and the Blacks kill the Mexicans on sight. This has also been witnessed in the prisons where riots have been reported due to one group attacking the other. The Black Americans have not had a cordial relationship with the black immigrants. This is based on the cultural and social differences that exist between them. Anthony (37) argues that there is disparity in wealth creation. The tax policies have restricted people on how to acquire wealth. The Social Security Acts excludes some sectors of the economy such as agriculture where most minority groups work and rewards other groups like the army. This has a disparity of wealth of acquisition by a factor of 1 to 10. Racism has affected negatively the health of the minorities. It is observed that the number of minorities that who visited psychiatrists was much higher as compared to Whites (Anti-Defamation League, par 3). Stress levels have also been discovered to be higher in the minorities groups. Frequent physical diseases and common colds have also been discovered to affect the minority females as compared to the white women. Inadequate health care is blamed for the many deaths observed in the black race than the white race. The Blacks lack or have inadequate medical insurance cover, reluctance to seek medical attention and poor medical service. It is said that many lives would be saved if the minority groups received proper medical attention as that of their white counter parts. The minority are no privileged to receive adequate health care if the treatment in question involves the very most recent technology. Affirmative Action Though he has been critical in highlighting the plights of the minority groups in America, Anthony (2009) adds that affirmative action has been put into place to address the historical injustice imposed on groups that were discriminated. This includes access to education, employment, health facilities. Most universities and employers are using affirmative action while admitting new students or employees respectively. Historically disadvantaged groups are given priority or a quota system is used. Opponents of affirmative action have displayed openly their discontent and would like people to be taken on merit and not on the basis of other methods. Fighting Racism at Individual Levels There exists ways that can help to fight this racism vice. A few of the ways as held by Global Research (2008) as such that could be to the sense that whenever one makes a racist joke, we are not supposed to laugh at it. Laughing encourages one to go on. Instead, we should make the person understand that the joke was not funny or we do not appreciate such kind of jokes. The worst thing is to keep silent. Instead we should speak over minds out but cautiously and politely. We should strive to learn about others and understand their cultures; the differences in our culture call for appreciation and celebration. We can learn from them and appreciate why some things are the way they are. There is no culture which is considered superior than the other. It is helps in enriching our own cultures. We should always use the correct language. It is not prudent to mention races in a conversation. Some people get offended when you use a language that it, there is an implication of racial discrimination. We should never use words haphazardly when we are not sure where one ails from. As much as possible, we should try to be role models. We should speak against but not criticize comments that are racist in nature. Educate others the negative effects of racism and narrate your own experiences to them if any. The other best thing though it can be uncomfortable is to venture into areas where one is not of the other kind. However, one should take his/her safety issues into consideration. If one learns in a White institution, one should try to venture into a Black institution or if she/he is a Christian, she/he should find time to visit a Muslim mosque. The experience will certainly be enlightening than one might expect (Global Research, par 7). If presented with projects, one should try t o do them with people who are not from their own kind. Playing at an equal level enhances the confidence of the minority and helps to cancel the bitter discrimination injustice feelings they might be harboring in their hearts. According to Anthony (2009), If one is a parent, he/she should at an early age try to mingle his/her children with the children from the other groups. One should strive to discuss TV programs and movies that could be of stereotype. This will help children to understand other people and their culture. This will help in suppressing racial discrimination traits from creeping in. As much as possible one should help and support organization that voices their ideas against racial discrimination. This will help in fighting against it and by joining these groupings; you will have a more powerful voice at the local level. People will be ready to listen to you. As they say, united we stand and apart we fall. Thus being in an organization with a common goal, great strides of achievements will be made. Conclusion It is safe to say that racism has drastically reduced with the continued legislation and having an informed populace. Religion also has played a major role in eradicating it as people believe that racism is a sin and practicing or helping in its propagation is sinning against God. Affirmative action programs have majorly benefitted the minority even though the white feel that they should be done away with total. They feel that they are the ones at the losing end. As always people try to resist change to the old ways they are used. Racial spats these days are not common. If one does an act implying racism, it is usually unconscious, unintentional and not malicious. With the reduction of racism, some things are yet to be achieved like equal employment opportunities and wages. The economic status of the minority still is wanting. This could be one of the reasons why hate crimes are still in the increase. The best way to reach a conclusive end to race disparities is to find a way of elim inating institutionalized discrimination. This kind of discrimination maintains the status quo of the society and thus the groups that have historically been disadvantaged continue to be on the losing end. As Martin Luther King Junior said that we as a nation need to undergo a radical revolution of values. Thus the United States criminal justice system must check the main cause of the problem. It should not rely on what it calls reforms; reforms of having nice beds in good position.